Concepts, Definitions,

& Papers

Concept: Poverty Culture

Concept: A Cognitive Approach to Poverty

Gorski, P. (2008). The Myth of the Culture of Poverty. Poverty and Learning. Volume 65. (no. 7). pp. 32-36.

This article refutes the idea of a poverty culture. He specifically calls into question assumptions many make about parental involvement, drug use, and linguistic ability, either by refuting the claims outright or offering alternative explanations beyond a simplistic cultural answer. The author also points out that this narrative is harmful, as part of the implication of the cultural poverty theory is that it is irreversible and can lead to people being unwilling to support important programs.

Payne, R.K. (2013). A Framework for Understanding Poverty: A Cognitive Approach. Highlands, TX. Aha! Process Inc.

This source is an excerpt from a book and analyses cognitive effects of different wealth levels. The author asserts that living in poverty from a young age affects the way a person thinks on a fundamental level. Directed at teachers in order to best help their poorer students, the author discusses that there are unspoken mores at each economic level, and to best understand and provide for these students, these mores must be understood. This source ends in a case study giving an example of how a lack of resources affects one’s access to opportunities, and the choices one has to make.

Individualistic Theories of Poverty

Concept: Culture of Poverty

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Poverty results from the deficiencies of individuals or the shortcomings of poor people (Pineda, 2018).

Wilson, W. J. & Venkatesh, S. (2009, March 23). The Culture of Poverty. Npr.org. Retrieved from: https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102246990

This NPR interview explores the concept of a culture of poverty. In essence, this concept revolves around the idea that being raised in poverty instills different values and habits that persist in a person for life, and that this phenomenon is responsible in part for generational poverty. The interview touches on behavior in schools and illicit activity as points of inquiry and shows that when brought up in a poor environment, ideas about certain behaviors differ from those from more privileged backgrounds.

Structural Theories of Poverty

Biogenic Theory

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Structural functionalism is a framework in sociology used for developing theories based on the notion that the society is a complex system composed of different parts that collectively work together to promote solidarity and stability (Pineda, 2018).

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Argues that native intelligence, rather than social status, influence the life prospect of an individual (Pineda, 2018).

Human Capital Theory

Cultural Theory

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Human capital provides a model for illustrating the relationship between the decision of an individual to invest in education or training and the pattern of his or her lifetime earnings (Pineda, 2018).

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Blames the prevalence of socioeconomic inequality not on the social structures or systems but on the deficiencies of impoverished individuals, claims that they lack the motivation to achieve because of their negative values (Pineda, 2018).

Marxian Theory

General Structural Theories

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

The cause of poverty is intentional due to the class struggle between the capitalist or owners of the means of production and the laborers (Pineda, 2018).

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Poverty tends to be prevalent in vulnerable demographic environments and troubled labor market circumstances. The failure of the society to collectively take responsibility for promoting the economic security of its citizens through the instrument of the welfare state (Pineda, 2018).

Restricted Opportunity Theory

Source: Pineda, M. E. (2018, September 19). Theories of Poverty. Retrieved 2019, from: https://www.profolus.com/topics/theories-of-poverty/

Poverty results from the circumstances that are beyond the control of an impoverished individuals. These circumstances generally center on the absence of opportunities or the lack of access to such opportunities (Pineda, 2018).

Mapping Marginality Hotspots: Geographical Targeting for Poverty Reduction

Source: Graw, V. & Husmann, C. (2012). Mapping Marginality Hotspots: Geographical Targeting for Poverty Reduction. ZEF Working paper 88.

This source stresses the usefulness of mapping in the efforts to end poverty, disease and other issues. The authors explain that using maps showing where various factors such as ethnicity, income, and unemployment are present, these various factors can be combined to find possible relationships between the factors and the incidence of poverty and disease rates. This method fits very well into the idea of intersectionality, as it can identify causal links between ideas that may not immediately be apparent.

Myth: Poor Countries are Doomed to Stay Poor

Source: Hector, Helen. (2014). 3 Big Poverty Myths-Busted!. One. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.one.org/international/blog/3-big-poverty-myths-busted/

The belief is that poor countries are just meant to be poor, or they will stay poor indefinitely. That is not the case. The best way to combat this myth is to look at previously poor countries and note their development. Poverty is something that can be overcome.

Myth: All Foreign Aid is Created Equal

Source: Koppel, Andrea. (2015). The Truth Behind 5 Myths About Global Poverty. Mercy Corps. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.mercycorps.org/articles/truth-behind-5-myths-about-global-poverty

Foreign aid to countries in crisis is often more expensive in the short-term than in long-term solutions. Disasters and new conflict require immediate short-term aid in the form of medical supplies, water, food, and more. The cost of these short-term supplies is much higher than implementing long-term solutions. In many countries, the internal conflict is dragging on longer, sometimes decades, which is costing everyone more.

Myth: All of Africa is Poor

Source: Magnanti, Nick. (2014). 5 Myths About Global Poverty. The Borgen Project. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://borgenproject.org/5-myths-global-poverty/

The view of Africa to most Americans, and others around the globe, is that the entire continent is poor. While it does have pockets of poverty, all of Africa is not poor. Per-person capita has grown in Africa. It also has many growing economies.

Myth: Starvation Helps Reduce Overpopulation

Source: Borgen, Clint. (2011). The Top 5 Myths About Global Poverty. Huffington Post. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.huffpost.com/entry/the-top-5-myths-about-glo_b_638359

Perhaps one of the cruelest myths is that by letting humans, including children, starve, we will reduce the population or not become overpopulated. However, the opposite is true. When living in poverty, there are higher birth rates. This is due to lack of family planning and uncertainty of life. When parents are more confident that their children will survive into adulthood, they tend to have fewer births.

Myth: Foreign Aid is a Big Waste

Source: Gates, Bill & Melinda. (2014). Three Myths About Global Poverty. Real Clear World. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.realclearworld.com/articles/2014/01/21/three_myths_about_global_poverty.html

Many believe that countries spend too much on aiding the poorer countries. Most countries spend around 1% of the national budget on foreign aid. Another belief is that corrupt governments see most of the aid. Corruption is amidst most governments and cannot be denied but today, the lives saved outweigh the few monetary benefits that a corrupt leader may reap. There are also complaints that aid keeps countries dependent. While it can take some countries longer to attain self-sufficiency, there are many nations that have received aid in the past that are currently growing and developing. Brazil, Peru, Thailand, and Singapore are a few of those countries.

Myth: Poor Countries are Just Short of Natural Resources

Source: Kennedy, Michelle. (2014). 27 Myths About the Developing World. Global Citizen. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/27-myths-about-the-developing-world/

There is a belief that impoverished countries are lacking natural resources. In fact, it is in some cases quite the opposite. Hundreds of billions of dollars leave the continent of Africa in natural resources each year. It is the allocation of finances and resources that can keep nations rich in resources poor.

Fact: In 2015, more people had access to mobile phones than a toilet.

Source: Elliott, Joy. (2015). 21 Shocking Facts About Global Poverty. One. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.one.org/us/blog/21-shocking-facts-about-global-poverty/

Fact: In the Middle East and North Africa, the number of people living in extreme poverty has almost doubled in two years. It now stands at 18.6 million people. This is mainly due to the conflicts in Syria and Yemen.

Source: Peer, Andrea. (2018). Global Poverty: Facts, FAQS, and How to Help. World Vision. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.worldvision.org/sponsorship-news-stories/global-poverty-facts

Fact: Nearly half of the world lives on less than $2.50 a day.

Fact: In the world’s richest countries, one in four children is living in poverty.

Source: Children International. (2019). Global Poverty Facts. Children International. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.children.org/global-poverty/global-poverty-facts/facts-about-world-poverty

Source: Elder, Shannon. (2017). 20 Global Poverty Facts. The Borgen Project. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://borgenproject.org/20-global-poverty-facts/

Fact: More than half of the extreme poor is located in just five countries: Bangladesh, China, The Democratic Republic of Congo, India, and Nigeria

Source: Compassion International. (2015). Quick Facts About Poverty. Compassion International. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.compassion.com/poverty/poverty.htm

Fact: In 2017 there were 821 million people chronically undernourished

Source: The Hunger Project. (2017). World Hunger Facts. The Hunger Project. Retrieved on June 6, 2019 from: https://www.thp.org/knowledge-center/know-your-world-facts-about-hunger-poverty/

The Geography of Exclusion: Race, Segregation, and Concentrated Poverty

Source: Lichter, D. T, Parisi, D & Taquino, M. C. (2012). The Geography of Exclusion: Race, Segregation, and Concentrated Poverty. Social Problems. Volume 59. (Issue 3). Pp. 364-388. DOI: 10.1525/sp.2012.59.3.364

This article discusses how poverty is concentrated in certain areas, often among certain ethnic groups. The massive uptick in poverty following the great recession has highlighted this. Especially since the recession hit the housing market, the effects of this recession were concentrated in many neighborhoods. The article also discusses how this concentration of poverty, coupled with the tendency for neighborhoods to be racially homogenous, creates a self-repeating cycle that resembles in some ways segregation. A lack of mobility essentially keeps people in poor areas in the same neighborhoods and in the same class, keeping them separate from others.

Towards a Spatial Understanding of Trade Offs in Sustainable Development: Analysis of the Nexus between Land Use, Poverty, and Environment in the LA

Source: Messerli P, Bader C, Hett C, Epprecht M, Heinimann A (2015). Towards a Spatial Understanding of Tradeoffs in Sustainable Development: A MesoScale Analysis of the Nexus between Land Use, Poverty, and Environment in the Lao PDR. PLOS One. Volume 10. (Issue 7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0133418

This article explains the need for a policy that both fits inside planetary boundaries, and it provides a policy that is just and sustainable for human development. It also expresses a need for policy that looks at poverty in a local context that fits people’s needs on a micro level. The article presents a case study, using the country of Laos as an example. The country is rich in natural resources but has large-scale inequality and threats to the environment. Often, people’s rights to their homes or lands are violated in the interest of expanding the exploitation and export of these natural resources. This is a clear example of policies that benefits the country on a macro level, while harming its people on the micro level. The paper expands on this idea through its case study analysis.

Poverty, Environment, and Heath: The Role of Environmental Epidemiology and Environmental Epidemiologist

Source: O'Neill, M. S, McMichael, A. J, Schwartz, J & Wartenberg, D. (2007). Poverty, Environment, and Health: The Role of Environmental Epidemiology and Environmental Epidemiologists. Epidemiology: Volume 18 (Issue 6) pp 664-668 doi: 10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181570ab9

This paper discusses some of the issues relating to sustainable poverty eradication, with a specific focus on newer challenges that have risen during the past few decades. One challenge discussed in this book is the exposure to environmental hazards such as air pollution or radiation. While it is known that these issues affect poorer areas more than richer ones, the paper asserts that current methods for analyzing where the greatest risks need to be refined. The article also discusses a need for preventative measures, to stop hazards from happening in the first place.

Climate Change, Food Availability, and Poverty: The Case of Philippine Rice

Source: Tiongco, M, Inocencio, A, Siriban-Manalang, A. B & Lamberte, A. (2018). Climate Change, Food Availability, and Poverty: The Case of Philippine Rice. DLSU Business & Economics Review. Volume 28. pp. 70-83.

This case study of the Philippines discusses the effects that a changing climate has had on the country’s staple food product, rice. In short, the changes in weather patterns and the climate make a decline in rice production, which in turn drives up the price. The increase prices and shorter supply of rice make it harder for people to buy this vital food, and already impoverish people are made even poorer because they have no choice but to buy the expensive rice. The paper proposes policy to reduce trade barriers, driving demand and up and prices back down for the rice.

Poverty and the Environment: Exploring the Relationship between Household Incomes, Private Assets, and Natural Assets

Source: Narain, U, Gupta, S, & Veld, K. (2008). Poverty and the Environment: Exploring the Relationship between Household Incomes, Private Assets, and Natural Assets. Land Economics. Volume 84. (Issue 1). pp. 148-167.

This article specifically analyzes the use of commonly owned natural resources by impoverished communities.While some literature reports that poor communities utilize the commons more than others, especially as a substitute for private lands, there is other literature that draws less of a clear correlation. The paper looks to find an answer and provides a “model for optimal resource collection” the model utilizes a variety of variables to attempt to predict if and how much a given household will utilize the commons to supplement their income.

The Impact of the Crisis on Poverty and Equity

This paper, published soon after the 1997-98 Asian Financial Crisis, looks to predict what effect the crisis would have on the countries in the regional organization, Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The article pays special attention to trends in urban poverty, as well as Indonesia, the most heavily hit country during the crisis. Using Indonesia as an example of an extreme, the paper then proposes policy to aid the aftermath of the crisis. These policy proposals include job programs, expansion of agriculture, and subsidies.

The Poverty Situation in Indonesia: Challenges and Progress of the Marginalized Group

Source: Hatta, Z, A. & Sarkawi, D, T. (2011). The Poverty Situation in Indonesia: Challenges and Progress of the Marginalized Group. Asian Social Work & Policy Review. Volume 5. (Issue 2). pp. 92-106.

This paper focuses on Indonesia and its poverty alleviation programs. It starts by explaining that Indonesia was hit the hardest by the 1997-98 financial crisis, forcing it to abandon many development programs. Early 21st century programs were safety-net style contingencies for sudden unemployment. After an earthquake followed by a tsunami, many were thrust into poverty, prompting the government to enact a direct cash transfer program to provide immediate and direct relief. The paper then explains other programs Indonesia has enacted, as well as analysis of their effectiveness.

Estimating the Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Poverty and Deprivation

Source: Saunders, P. & Wong, M. (2012). Estimating the Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Poverty and Deprivation. Australian Journal of Social Issues. Volume 47. (Issue 4). pp. 485-503.

This paper, focusing on Australia, notes that though the Australian economy has seen several decades of growth, poverty is still a prevalent issue in the country. Due to unrest around the world over wealth inequality, the Australian government is increasing its attention to the issue of poverty reduction. The paper then explains that the use of a ‘poverty line’ or an imaginary income level where one is considered poor or not depending on whether they are below or above it. This concept has some issues but is still a valuable tool for poverty policy. The paper then goes on to use a poverty line method to measure the effects of the global financial crisis, using survey data.

Financial Crisis in Asia: Its Genesis, Severity, and Impact on Poverty and Hunger

Source: Imai, K. S. Gaiha, R. Thapa, G. & Annim, S. K. (2013). Financial Crisis in Asia: Its Genesis, Severity and Impact on Poverty and Hunger. Journal of International Development. Volume 25. (Issue 8). pp. 1105-1116.

This article focuses on the effects that the 2008 financial crisis had on Asia. Special attention is payed to correlations between this crisis and the Asian financial crisis in the late 90’s. With both of these crises, the effects on growth and poverty reduction were discussed. To do this, data from 1960-2010 is analyzed, with the countries of Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam being chosen for study.

Priorities for Action on the Social Determinants of Health: Empirical Evidence on the Strongest Associations with Life Expectancy in 54 Low-income Countries, 1990-2012

Source: Hauck, K, Martin, S & Smith, P. C. (2016). Priorities for action on the social determinants of health: Empirical evidence on the strongest associations with life expectancy in 54 low-income countries, 1990-2012. Social Science & Medicine. Volume 167. pp. 88-98. DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.08.035

While this source has more to do with health than poverty, it discusses how the issues of poverty and life expectancy are linked in many ways. This paper looks to answer the question “where can we make a start to secure the biggest gains from addressing social determinants of health?” While the study did not find a singular answer to this question, there is much information in the study. A handful of the factors studied did have massive impacts on life expectance, such as funding for efforts against HIV/AIDS, support of gender equality, and financing of better agricultural practices.

The Effect of the Global Financial Crisis on Household Income, Inequality and Poverty in Turkey

Source: Şeker, S. D. & Dayıoğlu, M. (2016). The effect of the global financial crisis on household income, inequality and poverty in Turkey. Studies in Development. Volume 43. pp. 361-390

A case study on the effects of the recent global financial crisis on Turkey. This paper analyses the various aspects of household income, and how each was affected during and in the years following the crisis. While acknowledging the similarities between the effects on Turkey and other nations, the paper also looks into some of the unique aspects of Turkey’s experience. Among other things, their recovery has been slower, and the crisis increased overall poverty in the country, even after the crisis.

Who's afraid of budget deficits: How Washington should end its debt obsession

Source: Furman, J.; Summers, L. H. (2019). Who's afraid of budget deficits: How Washington should end its debt obsession. Foreign Affairs 98(2), 82-95.

This article, from the journal, Foreign Affairs, discusses the divide in thinking that economists have in regard to the United States’ debt. While many see it as a major issue, there are some that point to eagerness of foreign investors and foreign purchasers of debt as reasons that the debt is not as big a deal as some try to make it out to be. While many agree that this line of thinking has merit, many also agree that this is not sustainable. Additionally, there is an argument that the economy is in fact growing steadily, despite the large amount of debt. While this does not speak to sustainability, it does show that it is not necessarily a crisis in the present. The article points out that having large amounts of debt also makes it harder to turn around an economic crisis, as this almost definitely involves more government spending.

Impact of Financial Crises on Poverty in Developing World: An Empirical Approach

Source: Nikoloski, Z. (2011). Impact of Financial Crises on Poverty in the Developing World: An Empirical Approach. Journal of Development Studies. Volume 47. (Issue 11). pp. 1757-1779. DOI: 10.1080/00220388.2011.561329.

This article takes an intersectional approach to the analysis of the financial crisis, accounting for currency, banking and debt crises. It takes a macro approach to this idea, but in doing so measures the effects experienced by the individual on the micro level.

China’s Export Surge and World Poverty

Source: Yilmaz, R. & Koyuncu, C. (2010). China's Export Surge and World Poverty. Transformations in Business and Economics. Volume 9. (Issue 2). pp. 86-94.

This source discusses the links between China’s trade policies and other countries’ rates of poverty. In essence, as China expanded its economy and adopted more free market elements, they used state planning to keep their prices artificially low. When exporting these goods to other countries, these prices were highly competitive, pushing others out of the market. The authors tested the hypothesis that over a certain threshold, the more Chinese products a country exports, the lower its poverty level. This hypothesis was found to be correct.

Subjective Wellbeing and Income: Empirical Patterns in the Rural Developing World

Targeted Poverty Alleviation using Photovoltaic Power: Review of Chinese policies

Source: Reyes-García, V, Babigumira, R, Pyhälä, A, Wunder, S, Zorondo-Rodríguez, F & Angelsen, A. (2016). Subjective Wellbeing and Income: Empirical Patterns in the Rural Developing World. Journal of Happiness Studies. Volume 17. (Issue 2). pp. 773-791. DOI: 10.1007/s10902-014-9608-2

This study attempts to empirically evaluate how much wealth affects happiness. While certain amounts of wealth do increase happiness, this is only the case to a certain point. A much bigger factor is the way a person views themselves internally and in their community. What this means for policy makers is that if increasing overall happiness is a goal they wish to pursue, there is a need to work on social programs and mental health instead of focusing wholly on the economy.

Source: Elahi, E. Sun, C. Xu, Z. Zhang, H. (2018). Targeted Poverty Alleviation using Photovoltaic Power: Review of Chinese policies. Energy Policy. Volume 120. pp. 550-558.

This article combines sustainable development policy with anti-poverty policy. Dealing with solar power, and its potential role in the reduction of poverty in China. Because China has a high amount of sunlight hours, there are efforts to utilize this potential power to increase the income gained from energy production, which in turn can be used to fund anti-poverty projects. Focusing on rural farmers, the idea is to supply them with solar panels on their homes, the power of which can be used for their needs, selling the surplus for a profit. This idea has had some success in cities where it has been implemented, but there are some issues. While the theory is sound, improvements need to be made in where these panels are built, follow up maintenance after they are built, and overall efficiency of installation.

Mapping Marginality Hotspots: Geographical Targeting for Poverty Reduction

Source: Graw, V. & Husmann, C. (2012). Mapping Marginality Hotspots: Geographical Targeting for Poverty Reduction. ZEF Working paper 88.

This source stresses the usefulness of mapping in the efforts to end poverty, disease and other issues. The authors explain that using maps showing where various factors such as ethnicity, income, and unemployment are present, these various factors can be combined to find possible relationships between them. This method fits very well into the idea of intersectionality, as it can identify causal links between ideas that may not immediately be apparent.

The Geography of Exclusion: Race, Segregation, and Concentrated Poverty

Covering Social Risks Poverty Debate and Anti-Poverty Policy in France in the 1980s

Source: Haßdenteufel, S. V. (DE-588)1080164669, (DE-627)843926910, (DE-576)453370861, aut. (2016). Covering Social Risks Poverty Debate and Anti-Poverty Policy in France in the 1980s

This journal article analyzes the welfare state in western Europe, especially in France. It explains that even during a period seen as a “golden age” of welfare, large swaths of the country remained poor. Older people have long been vulnerable to poverty, but over time other demographics, especially younger people, are becoming more affected. The paper’s main thesis is not a specific policy, but that the way a government categorizes and conceptualizes poverty can be a major factor in the effectiveness of anti-poverty policies and welfare.

Distributional Politics and Social Protection in Indonesia

Source: McCarthy, J & Sumarto, M. (2018). Distributional Politics and Social Protection in Indonesia. Journal of Southeast Asian Economies. Vol. 35, (No. 2). pp. 223–36. DOI: 10.1355/ae35-2g.

This article explores the growing “global middle class” that is emerging as extreme poverty declines. This has in turn caused many countries in the global south to focus on social policies to try to help the poor in their countries. Focusing on Indonesia specifically, this article describes how in the face of the overall wealth of the country growing, the rate of inequality is growing. In combatting this, Indonesia has spent more money every year on social programs. The paper strives to point out issues in how the country has been handling the issue of its poor, and offers suggestions on what it should do instead.

The Impact of Globalization on Subjectivities in Cuba: A Gender Perspective

Source: Vega, A, P. (2014). The Impact of Globalization on Subjectivities in Cuba: A Gender Perspective. International Review of Psychiatry. Volume 26. (Issue 5). pp. 589-94. DOI: 10.3109/09540261.2014.917612.

This source discusses globalism and its effect on Cuba. One area of particular interest is how the US blockade harmed gender equity in the country. When the Soviet Union collapsed in the 1990’s, the US tightened its already strong blockade on the country. This caused great economic strife in the country, causing many women to have to give up some of the advances in employment they had made to take more care of extended family. This ‘feminization of poverty,’ a concept which means that the population of poor people is slanted towards women, still has many consequences for gender politics in Cuba today.